Criminal Justice Trends Evaluation Research Paper

Criminal Justice Trends Evaluation - Research Paper Example The wrongdoing levels including instances of theft, manslaughter, illicit medications and other vicious violations factually expanded dependent on research information (Shaw, van Dijk, and Rhomberg, 2003). Anent to social shameful acts concerns are issues also on sex exchange, (comprehensive on issues on prostitution and erotic entertainment where the substance exchange considered consenting grown-ups as ‘victimless crimes’ that are subject of ‘moral panics’) and of office wrongdoings that ranges from phony, defilement, fraud utilizing electronic gadgets, and tax evasion. It’s tragic that cubicle hoodlums, when gotten, are not presented with correctional sentences however are just required to pay for the harms done to casualties. Beside the first noticeable wrongdoings, the United States is additionally defied with violations that have extent impacts to regular citizen networks and to the state. Psychological warfare alongside alleged clerical wrongdo ings are likewise viewed as criminal offenses, however sociologists consider the previously mentioned to be ‘political crimes’ (Mueller, 2013). ... gathering, utilization of radiological danger, misrepresentation of records and other involving impacts that could deceive huge number of regular citizen masses (National Counterterrorism Center, 2013). The Federal Bureau of Investigation similarly expressed in its reports dependent on ordered data from law authorization offices that there is an expansion of 1.9 % of savage wrongdoings over the most recent a half year in 2012 (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2013). These vicious wrongdoing spread homicide, persuasive assault, burglary, and disturbed attack. With respect to the property related misdemeanors, there is an expanded of 1.5 percent in 2012 contrasted with the detailed measurements in 2011 that incorporate robbery, burglary, and engine vehicle burglary (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2013). Bank wrongdoings insights additionally demonstrated that in 2011 alone, there are 5,014 thefts, 60 robberies, and 12 burglaries which plundered about $ 38.3 million dollars of money a nd other significant properties (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2013). Just 20% of these cases are recouped or fathomed by law authorization specialists (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2013). As indicated by measurable records, there are 6,088 people associated with changed bank wrongdoing cases yet just 3,263 people are recognized, of which 1,229 of 37% are engaged with opiates and 583 people or 18% are recidivists of theft, bank robbery and bank burglary cases (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2013). Beside the expansion of measurements on violations, the progression of data innovation additionally made it simpler for the commission of wrongdoings since the vast majority of the exchanges are done on the web and the criminals’ coordination or correspondence rush their systems administration or their arrangements of doing their criminal plans (U.S. Branch of Justice, 2013). Violations can be attempted by

Mosasaurus Facts and Figures

Mosasaurus Facts and Figures The name Mosasaurus (articulated MOE-zah-SORE-usis) is somewhat gotten from the Latin word Mosa (the Meuse River), and the second 50% of the name originates from the word Sauros, which is Greek for reptile. This sea abiding animal is from the late Cretaceous time frame (70 to 65 million years back). Its distinctive qualities incorporated a dull, gator like head, blade on the finish of its tail, and a hydrodynamic form. It was enormous up to 50 feet in length and gauging 15 tons-and stayed alive on a tight eating routine of fish, squid, and shellfish. About Mosasaurus The remaining parts of Mosasaurus were found well before taught society knew anything about development, dinosaurs, or marine reptiles-in a mine in Holland in the late eighteenth century (consequently this animals name,â in respect ofâ the close by Meuse River). Significantly, the uncovering of these fossils drove early naturalists like Georges Cuvier to estimate, just because, about the chance of species going wiped out, which went against acknowledged strict creed of the time. (Until the late Enlightenment, most instructed individuals accepted that God made all the universes creatures in Biblical occasions and that precisely the same creatures existed 5,000 years back as do today. Did we notice that they likewise had no origination of profound geologic time?) These fossils were differently deciphered as having a place with fish, whales, and even crocodiles; the nearest surmise (by the Dutch naturalist Adriaan Camper) was that they were mammoth screen reptiles. It was Georges Cuvier who built up that the fearsome Mosasaurus was a monster individual from the group of marine reptiles known as mosasaurs, which were described by their huge heads, incredible jaws, smoothed out bodies, andâ hydrodynamicâ front and back flippers. Mosasaurs were just remotely identified with the pliosaurs and plesiosaurs (ocean snakes) that went before them (and which they to a great extent displaced from the predominance of the universes seas during the late Cretaceous time frame). Today, transformative researcher accept they were most firmly identified with cutting edge snakes and screen reptiles. The mosasaurs themselves went wiped out 65 million years back, alongside their dinosaur and pterosaur cousins, by which time they may as of now have been capitulating to rivalry from better-adjusted sharks. Similarly as with numerous creatures that have loaned their names to whole families, we know relatively less about Mosasaurus than we improve verified mosasaurs like Plotosaurus and Tylosaurus. The early disarray about this marine reptile is reflected in the different genera to which it was relegated over the span of the nineteenth century, including (take a full breath) Batrachiosaurus, Batrachotherium, Drepanodon, Lesticodus, Baseodon, Nectoportheus, and Pterycollosaurus. There have additionally been near 20 named types of Mosasaurus, which step by step fell by the wayside as their fossil examples were doled out to other mosasaur genera; today, all that remain are the sort species, M. hoffmanni, and four others. Incidentally, that shark-gulping Mosasaurus in the film Jurassic World mayâ seem great (both to individuals in the anecdotal park and individuals in the genuine cinema crowd), yet its totally out of scale: A genuine, 15-ton Mosasaurus would have been a request for size littler and considerably less amazing than its true to life portrayal andâ almost certainlyâ incapable of hauling a huge Indominus rex into the water.

Homeless Man Steve

Homeless Man Steve This evening as I was leaving Best Buy, I noticed this man going through the garbage can outside of the store. As I walked to my car I watched him as he reached in the garbage can and pulled out fast food trash bags and inspected all that was in the thrown away bags. He did this for several minutes. He would find a few fries in one bag and a bite or two of a hamburger in another bag. You can see the hamburger wrapper by his knee where he was placing the food items hed found.He never bothered anyone or tried to stop and beg for money as people entered and left the store. After he went through the entire trash can he neatly cleaned up the area and wrapped up the food he found in the dirty hamburger wrapper. My heart literally hurt for him. I am not someone who just hands out money or even helps homeless people because so many are not truly homeless. I dont guess Ive ever seen someone actually go through a garbage can to try to find food to eat.SteveI knew I had to help him. I got out o f my car and asked him if I could buy him something to eat. He told me he would appreciate anything I could get him. He was on a bike and I told him if hed follow me Id buy him a meal at the fast food place around the block. He followed me and I bought him the biggest meal they had on the menu. The only request he gave me for his order was if I could get him a big glass of sweet tea to go with his meal! When I brought him his food, he was so thankful. He told me his name was Steve and hed been homeless ever since his sister died last September. He was trying to get off the streets, but it was so hard. I told him God loved him and I would pray for him. He told me again how much he appreciated the meal.When I got back in my car, I drove off with such a heaviness in my heart for this man. I drove down the road and felt compelled to go back to help this man. When I came back he had finished his meal and was riding away. I pulled up beside him and asked him if there was any way I could help him. He told me not really. He never asked me for money. I asked him if I could buy him a few meals and put it on a gift card for him. He told me that would be so kind. I drove to McDonalds and bought him some meals and gave him a gift card.He broke down crying. He told me that he prayed for me today! I wasnt sure what he meant (I was assuming he was praying for me for what I did for him) so I thanked him. He said, No, you dont understand. I prayed that God would send someone to buy me a hot meal today and he sent you! I didnt know what to say I was speechless! Praying for a hot meal wasnt a prayer I had prayed today! Come to think of it, thats not a prayer Ive ever prayed! I always pray over my food, but Ive never prayed for a meal its expected! Ive never doubted that I wouldnt be able to eat Tears began to fill my eyes! Oh my how blessed am I Maybe God used me to answer this mans prayer to let him know that He cares for Him and knows what goes going through! But, maybe God us ed this man to show me just how blessed I am and what I take for grantedHe said, You see, I have cancer! He pulled up his shirt and pointed to a huge mass that was poking out from his stomach. He said said he knew it wouldnt be much longer. I asked him if knew Jesus. He told me that he did. I asked if I could pray for him and he said that I could. We prayed right there on the sidewalk of McDonalds. Tears just poured from his eyes. He told me he knew that he was going to die and that he was ready to die. He was tired of being in pain and he would be better off dead because this was no life living this way. I stayed and encouraged him for a few minutes trying to fight back my tears. My prayer is that I showed him the love of Jesus today that something I said gave him a hope.You see, everybody has a story! I know Steves story now all because I felt compelled to help him he ended up touching me today!When I left him, I knew I had done what God wanted me to do! God put him in my path to day I know he did! Ive never felt such a feeling to help someone as I did today. I was reminded again of how blessed I am! I have a vehicle that gets me from place to place, I have a roof over my head, clean clothes, money to buy a hot meal, running water, electricity, my health, a job, family, and friends! Sometimes God sends situations our way to remind us of how blessed we are! If youve read this far, please remember Steve in your prayers!Yes, I have been blessed, Gods so good to me! Precious are His thoughts of you and me! Theres no way I could count them, theres not enough time, so Ill just thank Him for being so kind. God has been good, so good! I have been blessed!By John Brantley Principal at A. C. Moore Elementary https://www.facebook.com/john.brantley.9

A Midsummer Nights Dream Essay The Importance of Setting

The Importance of Setting in Shakespeares A Midsummer Nights Dream The two locations of Shakespeares A Midsummer Nights Dream are essential to the development of the plot, although their presentation relies wholly on the characters we meet there, their adventures and their descriptions of these places. Athens is not an accidental choice of location: although much of the detail of the play is quintessentially English, the classical setting enables Shakespeare to introduce the notable lawgiver, who has had his own problems in love; it makes plausible the reference to the severe law, and it allows Oberon to refer seriously to Cupid and Diana without the plays seeming blasphemous. Theseus is an enlightened ruler, notable†¦show more content†¦In this wood the actions of men are observed by greater powers who give then their deserts. Thus Bottom, encroaching on the bower of the Fairy Queen is the victim of Pucks mischief, though he suffers less from the indignity than his terrified fellows. The wood is also a place of wild beasts. When Titania sleeps the fairies cast a spell and one stands as sentinel to keep away snakes, hedgehogs, spiders, beetles and other creatures thought harmful or unpleasant. There may even be lions and wolves, described by Puck in 5.1, as he enters Theseus house, which shall not be disturbed by unwanted creatures; there are ounce, cat, bear, pard and boar, any of which Titania may see on waking, and love. Even when these creatures are absent, Puck (3.2 105 - 110) may imitate them. Lysander, perhaps drawing inspiration from the woodland beasts likens Hermia both to a cat and to a serpent (3.2 260 -261). Helena has dreamed of a serpent, eating her heart away, while Helena claims to be as ugly as a bear since the other woodland beasts run from her (for fear she supposes, but we do not have to agree with this judgement). There is, however, a more pleasant quality of the wood. Titanias bower is described by Oberon as a place of great beauty and delight to the senses. Titania, in love with Bottom, orders her fairies to provide him with delightful pleasures. Though his appetite isShow MoreRelatedContrasting Places in a Mid Summer Nights Dream Essay1409 Words   |  6 Pagesmeaning of the work. Choose a novel or play that contrasts two such places. Write an essay explaining how the places differ, what each place represents, and how their contrast contributes to the meaning of the work. Structure Vs. Chaos A Midsummer Night’s Dream Contrasting places have been used in many works of literature throughout history to strengthen the meaning of stories. 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The Ambitious Quests Frankenstein - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2367 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/04/04 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: Frankenstein Essay Did you like this example? The Ambitious Quests Frankenstein by Mary Shelley is a novel encircling the struggles that accompany the quest for ambition. Walton is driven by the desire of discovering new lands, Victor is driven by the ambitions of creating new life, but most important of all, the creature is driven by the desire to be seen as an equal in society. Upon reading it the first time in tenth grade, I mostly noticed the drastic consequences of desire and how ones life can be paved by their burning necessity to accomplish something. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Ambitious Quests Frankenstein" essay for you Create order I enjoyed the novel quite a lot, but along with school work comes a lot of stress since there was a significant amount of reading. And along with that a multitude of assignments and projects. But in the end, they only helped me develop the skills necessary for the essay that we were assigned to write. Last year, I chose to write my paper about the hardships of the monster to fit in, and his instances of denial by humanity to be seen as a physically and mentally alike person, leading to his acts of rebellion against humanity. Having burgeoned my knowledge of the wide perspective of features to notice in the text, I decided to read Frankenstein again because it can be very useful in making connections and writing essays on it, as it has a lot of complex and applicable aspects and details to it that Ive noticed from my second read. Also, just the mere idea of creating life, dealing with monsters, and setting foot on journeys brings great interest and rapture to me. However, having read so many new texts since tenth grade, and learned so much more about Literature, specifically archetypes, my second experience with Frankenstein was filled with sincere alacrity. AP Literature has enlightened me of the significance of archetypes, and now that Ive read this novel again, I realize how many there are, scattered around it. The first of these is the portrayal of seasons. Whenever it is spring, Victor is depicted as happy, hopeful, and positively speaking of nature and life, as evident in the line spring advanced rapidlymy senses were gratified by a thousand scents of delight and a thousand sights of beauty (Shelley, 136). However, when it is winter, things fall apart and everything is described as wretched and gloomy. For example, both Victors peak illness and Williams death, falsely accused to Justine, occurs in winter. Frankenstein reveals that this whole winterhas been consumed in my sick room (65), foreshadowing the negative vibes of the season of winter. Also, the death of his little brother meant everything to Victor, acting as the catalyst to everything that was to come later on in the novel. The role that season and weather play in this situation is very important as they clearly set the tone for the first death of the novel by the hands of the monster. As Victor approached the scene of Williams death, the darkness and storm increased every minute, and the thunder burst with a terrific crashvivid flashes of lightning dazzled my eyes (82). Instances like this, where Victor is mourning or experiences difficulties, are accentuated by bad weather. Shelley may have done this to emphasize the significance of the situation to Victors life; as, in this case, Victor continues to feel the guilt of Williams death for the rest of the novel, demonstrated in the line, I called myself the murder of William (217). The second of the multitude of archetypes in the novel is scarring and deformity, which is a huge factor, as the creature is viewed an d judged by his abhorred physical appearance. He is shunned by society because of his abnormal and unusual characteristics, and even after so much efforts of kindness and care to be accepted as a human equal, is put down by humanity and is denied his ambition of becoming apart of society. As described by Victor, the monster was defined by his gigantic stature, and the deformity of its aspect, more hideous than belongs to humanityit was the wretch, the filthy daemon, to whom I had given life (83). Being viewed solely by these features demoralizes the monster, ultimately leading to his ambition for revenge against his master. But he at one point acknowledges his deformities when he says when I became fully convinced that I was in reality the monster that I am, I was filled with the bitterest sensations of despondence and mortificationI did not entirely know the fatal effects of this miserable deformity (133), hinting at his sense of both giving up and foreboding his tragic hero endings. Also, he demonstrates a sense of sorrow for himself, explaining that he was cursed with the life of a wretched human being. Yet a more impactful and significant scarring was the wound the monster was given by the little girls father. The man shoots the creature because he thinks, as a result of the deformed appearance of the monster, that the intruder is a threat to both him and his daughter. When the monster saves the girl from drowning potentially a hint at a slight baptism the man takes the girl from the monster and runs off. But the creature, being kind and worrisome, follows in hopes of helping, only to be appreciated for his duties with a gun[aimed] at my body and fired (169). This bullet wound symbolizes a major turning point for the creature, as it represents a shift from wanting acceptance from society to seeking vengeance and violence upon humans. Shelley depicts the monster as the way he is in order to create an awareness of pity for the monster, as he is supposed to be the tragic hero of the novel; in a sense, his deformities allow the foreshadowing of his tragic end. The third is the attempted communion between both Clerval and Victor. When Frankenstein isolates himself for three years in order to make the monster, he becomes sick and denies any contact with humanity. However, when Henry appears in Ingolstadt, Victor is happy and cheerful to have his friend, and it is now that he accepts communication with others. Victor explains that when Henry appeared, they both went to go get breakfast, a meal that Victor attempts to have after years of isolation. He reveals, I jumped over the chairs, clapped my hands, and laughed aloud (63). His joy for communion represents both cheers for his friend, but also a wicked, wild sense to him as a result of elongated periods of isolation. Although a failed attempt at communion, the significance of this scene is that Victor accepts communion with none other than Henry, signifying the importance of his best friend. Before the meal can start, Victor immediately becomes ill, thus Clerval helps Victor regain his health for the next couple of months; again, only eating with Henry. Their relationship represents a complex and entwined connection, and when Clerval tragically dies, Frankenstein is nothing. He is left in despair and ruins and is sent to a mental asylum, no longer having the care and passion of a loving friend. Unhinged, he is drowned in insane thoughts of revenge. Shelley purpose behind this is to show Frankensteins self-centeredness, emphasizing his lack of ability to survive without the help of others, suggesting a weak soul behind the genius and scientist silhouette. Reading Frankenstein a second time was truly a different and unique experience, as I was able to use the list of short stories and novels Id newly read to connect to the novel. First-off, having readThou Blind Mans Mark by Sir Philip Sidney, I now had more knowledge on the subject of desire. The poem argued desire to be a trap, causing one pain and fatal consequences through the phrase thou web of will (Sidney, 4), which signifies the ability of desire to trap you in its complex and entwined problems. But desire in the eyes of Victor, Walton, and the monster is something that will give them what they want. For Victor and Walton, it is power, and for the monster, it is acceptance by those who have power. So, having read the poem helped me create a link, and actually helped create a foreshadow of the outcome of each of their desires. Another connection was with the short story Desirees Baby by Kate Chopin, as both Desiree and the creature leave the story by entering the water and not resurfacing, potentially a failed baptism. The monster, although evident that he wants to exult in the agony of the torturing flames (Shelley, 277) somewhere far away, jumps off the edge of the ship, borne away by the waves and lost in darkness and distance (Shelley, 277). However, Shelley purposefully left out the monsters resurfacing to leave the tale of the creature on hold and in the dark, potentially indicating at a failed baptism, thus another archetype. This decision leaves us questioning whether or not the monster will fulfill his promise of burning himself, most likely done to leave the tragedy of t he monster in the hands of the readers. Another connection I can make between Frankenstein and another book I read since last year is with Things Fall Apart. Both novels follow the same journey, of quest, tragedy, and failure. Had I not read Things Fall Apart, I would not have been able to make this connection, but now that I have read both, I can tell how similar they are in terms of journey. Okonkwo is destined with a burning desire to gain wealth and fame in his society. Walton and Victor desire to grow powerful from discovery and the creature desires to be accepted by humanity. Okonkwo faces consequences for his desires and ultimately leads to his exile. From there, he experiences a tragic downfall and at the end, a dreadful termination. The exile of Okonkwo is also portrayed in Victor, through his period in jail, and the monster, through his period of life after being denied by humanity both in the cottage and in the forest. Victor and the monster face the consequences of their needs as Victor is threatened by the death of his entire family except for one brother and friends and the monster is threatened by his own life being taken away. They both end in tragic deaths, truly reflecting Okonkwos life. Walton, on the other hand, is warned of the dangers of desire, and quickly disposes of his ambitions of discovery and returns home. He symbolizes a survivor of the curse of desire portrayed by Okonkwo, Victor, and the monster, something not evident in either text. This relationship between both prominent, yet century-apart novels is significant because they portray two great examples of the consequences and results of one who desires and fears failure and warns us the readers to beware of the cautions of ambition and where quests for such needs end up. Yet another outside the text connection I made this time around was the multitude of connections with the Bible. Along with the instances of Shelley relating the monster to Adam, Satan, and the Bible, I this time around realized the connection of Victor to God. Frankenstein, like God, created life. No matter the scale at which each made life, Victor is portrayed by Shelley as God-like, something that passed my head when reading last year. This God-like status he is given by Shelley portrays that of a Christ Figure, yet another archetype in the sea of the complexities within the novel. At the beginning of the text, Frankenstein exclaims I will pioneer a new way, explore unknown powers, and unfold to the world the deepest mysteries of creation (46). This represents his selfishness and his desire to become the only one to create life and to gain power from his discovery. However, Victor does not hold up to his Christ Figure description, as he both denies his friendship with the monster and declines the creatures offer of leaving him alone in return for a wife. Through these two actions, Frankenstein proves he is not God-like and is simply a human being with deep desires. The use of biblical allusions in the text demonstrates the creation of a good and evil side for each character, depicting a human behavior for each individual. The ability of Shelley to relate her novel to the Bible is very fascinating, as it portrays intricate complexities and allows the reader to submerge even further into the meaning of her text. My second experience reading the novel was highlighted by archetypes and connections, as I now had a wider expanse of knowledge, thanks to AP Literature. My second journey with Frankenstein was filled with a more positive experience, as I now had prior knowledge of the book, allowing me to look deeper into the text and discover things I had not during tenth grade. Such examples include archetypes, which I did not know what they were until two months ago. I was able to connect the novel to more works of literature this time as I had read so many more texts since last year. Making connections and discovering new literary devices in the text was a highlight of my experience this time with the novel, and I believe that I have a better understanding of Shelleys purposes on writing the way she did. Her ability to portray the quests of ambition is very intriguing, as it dives deep into the potential dangers of desire and ambition. Her killing off all of Victors friends and family, including himself and the monster, reveals that ambition can be very fatal if not taken caution towards, as evident in Walton, who is the only ambitionist survivor. Therefore Shelley attempts to warn her readers of the evident and tragic results of desire, through the deaths of so many people in her novel. However, it is possible to assume that whatever was destined for Victor and the monster was eventually to come, depicting the inevitable repercussions of ambitious actions and decisions, which Shelley strongly portrays. But at the end of the day, whats comin will come, an well meet it when it does (Hagrid). Works Cited Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft. Frankenstein. Barnes Noble, 2015.

Victimization of Women in Society with Regard to Anita Nair, S Ladiescoupe Free Essays

string(111) " for the purpose of achieving cultural comprehensiveness in the historical-cum-artist portrayal of personages\." The undeserved dilemma of modern woman is a recurrent theme of the novels of Bharati, a widely acclaimed author and winner of the National Book critics’ award. She considered her works, a celebration of her emotion that she brings out of her heart. She has depicted very minutely the condition of Asian immigrants in North America, with particular attention to the changes taking place in South Asian women in a new world. We will write a custom essay sample on Victimization of Women in Society with Regard to Anita Nair, S Ladiescoupe or any similar topic only for you Order Now She presents all her characters a survivors against the brutalities and violence that surrounded them. A threat that runs through all the novels of Mukherjee is of religious, racial, sexual and economic class difference. Bharati expresses the â€Å"the inner expropriation of cultural identity†. Pre-natal reminiscence is the fountain head of the Indian tradition. Encounter between India, England and USA ends in an inter cultural accommodation. The two integral parts of reality are fixity and change. The blending of being and becoming attracts the attention of novelists. Nativity and nationality meet face to face challenging immigrant sensibility and expatriate predicament. Monolithic cultural identity is dissolved in the process of cultural mutation. Thus this is evident in the novel against the background of Tara Lata’s recollection of childhood memory of previous birth and cross cultural pollination. A British becoming an Indian is a matter of attention while at the same time an Indian turning a snobbish British is equally an important subject matter for our concern. The philosophical import of the title, â€Å"From Being to Becoming,† is actually gleaned from the ritual incidents and personages. Heraclitus, the Greek philosopher stated that nothing remains static and so everything is in a state of change or constant transition. This phenomenon is nothing but a movement across cultures. The troublesome question is about the possibility of the life of the mind which transcends space and time. What is native becomes alien and what is alien becomes native. The issue is not so much connected with external space-time framework. But it has lot to do with our inner life. For example, Mishtigunj and Mist Mahal are the creations of John Mist. These places had become the home of ecumenical accommodation. It has turned in to a place which supports Christian unity. The Shoonder Bon village worshipped John Mist as an avatar. Helping the poor, feeding the hungry ones, elevating the life of the depressed, creating schools, building houses, hospitals, supplying the money, the necessary wherewithal, and shaping the body and soul of Shoonder Bon Home are the admirable heroic activities. All his heroic activities had endowed John Mist with the status of divine incarnation. By temperament he was Vedantic and by outlook he was Vedic. Experiences are always universal and they tend to move on in a parallel line. A man born in England getting fully rooted and absorbed in the life of Shoonder Bon village in East can be described as a phenomenon continent. Though the inhabitation is in a specific culture modern like cross-cultural pollination and acculturation are not sufficient to psychoanalyze the life of a soul. The Tree Bride is a powerful depiction of pre-independence India bringing two continents into contact with each other. East and West are traditionally conceived as terms of contrast, but this novel differs from this time-honored way of treating East and West. Shattering and solidifying of cultural boundaries are the two sub-conscious streams pervading the novel. John Mist serves as an example for the first category while Virgil Treadwell is shown as an instance for second category as he happens to be an East India Company official and a commissioner with an Anglophile and Edwardian bent of mind looking to formal, external decorum and spectability as norms of good behavior. But the novelist is preoccupied with mysticism and transformation of consciousness. Therefore anectodes, precedents and succeedents are only matter of chronology, history and geography. Human beings are irrespective of time, place and age. Anti-British and pro-British elements are attitudes which are incidental and largely history. The novelist does not spare her satirical pen where the British rule in India is concerned. Brahmo Samaj, a revival Indian Renaissance Movement, comes under severe scrutiny in the novelist’s hands. It can be clearly seen that the artist shows her inward respect over Jaikrishna Gangooly, the great grandfather of Tara, and his daughter, the Tree Bride. They also respected the Gangooly family for it is more attached to Arya Samaj which came as a corrective to Brahmo Samaj. The first movement endorses the philosophy of liberal, scientific Westernization while the second accepts the same phenomenon with a great deal of reservation. The business of Bharati Mukherjee is to be true to the facts of life. She acknowledges the fact that the British lifted India from the deep slumber of decadence. At the same time the novelist mounts a frontal attack on the British strategy of perpetrating the foreign rule through religious divisions. â€Å"It is easy for an English-educated, middle-class Indian (or Pakistani or Bangladesh) to fall in line with colonial prejudice. Thirty thousand British bureaucrats and â€Å"factors† were able to rule ten thousand times more Indians by dividing Muslims from Hindus, Persian Zoroastrians from Muslims, Sikhs from Hindus, and nearly everyone, including Hindus, from castes like lazy Brahmins and money-grubbing banias†. 44) It shows that the need of the British empire could be better fulfilled by the Indians than by the English men. Macaulay’s limited psychoanalysis of the situation was right as far as his administrative framework was involved. But he failed to see the spontaneous mystical influence of each culture over the other. The novel contains two layers of unfolding its theme. One layer is obviously concerned with the co nsequences resulting from the setting up of the East India Company. To a historian, the other layer remains obscure and somewhat non-logical. But the novelist takes immense care to distribute the emphasis in an equable manner for the purpose of achieving cultural comprehensiveness in the historical-cum-artist portrayal of personages. You read "Victimization of Women in Society with Regard to Anita Nair, S Ladiescoupe" in category "Essay examples" Macaulay saw culture and civilization in the mass as a consolidated unified framework. That is after all a nineteenth-century Benthamite utilitarian rationale. It is the justification or rationalization of relating to the utilitarian philosophy of Jeremy Bentham. A mass tendency validates an individual wishing after some cultural fallback. Man in the mass is metaphorically dead. Only the individual who does not align himself with the mass tendency is alive. Every culture is in a state of being and becoming and what is far more important is that one emerges into the other. There is always an interplay between the two. The reason is that every society is subject to mutation and change. No culture has come to stay like a consolidated stone. History events and the march of time leave no society and culture untouched. The richness of any antiquity is never lost in the exposure of any historical, social and cultural metamorphosis. The novel brings out this idea of absorption and assimilation: In my mind, the history of the British in India is a story of adventure gone bad, where the thrill of new encounters, the lure of transformation†¦started drying up†¦Maybe there is a limit to the human capacity for wonder or the ability to absorb the truly alien without trying to reduce its dimensions and tame its excess. (48) It is clear that the stand of outside time is true and enduring . Simultaneously some other mysterious element enters time to put life through a process of transmutation. Frequently at such moments cultural upheavals occur. One such movement is the encounter between England and India in the wake of the setting up of the East India Company as the nucleus and the wing of the British Empire. The powerful depiction of the scenes and a comprehensive portrayal of significant characters enables us to come to terms with the psycho-social implications of what they stand for and where the repercussions lead to. A head-on collision between the sociology of the society and the psychology of the individuals is perceptible. Demonstrably Eliot’s theory of past influencing the present and the present equally modifying the past is at work in the novel. A discussion taking place in San Francisco among Tara and Bish,Yash Khanna and Victoria Khanna is related to a memorable historical event in Shoonder Bon village (in East Bengal). The information so secured about this past is more by coincidence. The restlessnes of Tara’s spirit and the probability involved in her rumbling upon some material link the present with the past. It is the matter of sheer chance. Nevertheless it has value. Victoria Khanna’s grandfather was Virgil Treadwell. As he was in Indian Civil Service, he was posted as a district commissioner in Bengal in 1930. The Six containing old ledgers of grandfather is a historical record about him. Victoria Khanna informs Tara about these materials. An impetus from the research into the past history Tara Lat Gangooly is the outcome of Tara’s inner prompting of her reminiscent prevision of a remote historical record of Mishtigunj which presents a parallel equivalent to an idealist view of a world of unalloyed joy and bliss. The random availability of record by sheer coincidence or accident from the hand of Victoria Khanna leads to the fulfillment of such a goal of study and investigation. Mist Nama is a powerful poetic depiction of a rich rewriting of the ancient Indian Vedic history by a British-turned Hindoo, John Mist. The question, â€Å"Who contributes† is as much important as the question â€Å"What is contributed. † John Mist is the creator of an ideal social order. Mist-Nama is a practical rendering of a life-vision. A British Hindu stood for the Hindu-Moslem unity. His governing philosophy in the language of the novelist was the harmonious combination of the ‘two’ of everything and it meant occupation and employment for both Hindus and Moslems in an equitable proportion. He conducted hectic commerce and business enterprises and whatever he earned, he shared with all. A profit-making East India Company British ship dropped a legacy making sailor-turned savior, John Mist. There were many Indians who became pseudo-British by their outward forms of Westernization like Virgil Treadwell. At the same time there were many British like John Mist, David Llewellyn and Coughlin Nigel who became true Indian Hindoos by their inner transformation of being. Imitation must contain an element of creative transformation; otherwise it can turn into mere form and decorum ending in an emptiness of being. The context for the discussion of the relationship between ‘being’ and ‘becoming’ is demonstrably evident here. The truth to be established is that’ being’ and’ becoming’ are not the usual dichotomies but they are two indivisible sides of the same coin. Tara and John Mist appear as immigrants. Immigrancy is equated with loss of something and a search for true â€Å"something. † Tradition and convention describe nativity as something which is independent upon space, time, history and geography. This is a monolithic vision of culture and nativity. Nativity is therefore defined as a belonging to a culture and sharing oneness with it. But Bharati Mukherjee establishes another view that nativity is independent of all factors and it is more connected with inner being and less with spontaneous factors. A search for realization of inner being is conserved by the novelist as nativity. The idea of birthplace being conserved as nativity is different from the idea of describing nativity as sharing oneness with the inner being which is independent of spacing the framework. The drama is that being turns into becoming and being from becoming turns into being. The novelist holds two views which are not contradictory as each other. John Mist says: â€Å"having come nowhere, he had everywhere to go. Having had nothing, he has had everything and anything at his disposal. † (27) Elsewhere the novelist says that where one inherits nothing, he is entitled to everything. Freedom of immigrancy and liberty of any form of absorption put the being and the becoming in a process of creative interplay. Mukherjee acknowledges the fact that life is an unpredictable mystery:â€Å"We have been trained to think of Mishtigunj as home in ways that our adopted homes, Calcutta and California, must never be. Ancestors come and to, but one’s native village, one’s desh, is immutable. (29)† Tara realizes her native home as Mishtigunj in a state of immigrancy. But the home of John Mist is the same Indian village. Tara and John Mist realized their nativity in different ways where ‘being’ and’ becoming’ move and merge into each other. John Mist is the creator of Indian Mishtigunj and he is a British who discovers his sweet home in this village. Tara, an Indian immigrant in San Francisco, discovers home in the British created legendary village, Who is an immigrant? Who is a native? These questions get simultaneously juxtaposed. Home if therefore or it needs to be defined where one’s being is. In comparison with Tara and John Mist, Virgil Treadwell is less a better human being in spite of his being absorbed in the new phenomenon called Eurasianism. He could plot along with the British and spy on Tara Lata Gangooly’s house. These facts have deprived him of his inner being. His Eurasianism corrupted his nobility, introducing falsity. He sold his soul and made his profit whereas John Mist gave away his profit to people and he discovered his soul in his sacrifice. Bharati Mukherjee says that when the British like Virgil Treadwell spoke of profit John Mist thought in terms of leaving legacy. Therefore the concept of total objectivity of culture dies-down in the birth of polyvalent cultural subjectivity. Tara, Virgil Treadwell and John Mist are varying examples of the new proposition. With John Mist loss of objectivity (British culture) ends in discovery of subjectivity. Here the words’ loss’ and ‘gain’ and ‘objectivity’ and ‘subjectivity’ and’ being’ and ‘becoming’ are more connected with subconscious realization of one’s inner being. In the case of Virgil Treadwell, British gain meant Indian loss whereas conversely in the case of John Mist’s British loss meant Indian gain. The novelist uses very sensational generalizations to illustrate this truth:â€Å"All the could-have-beens and should-have-beens of history, the best of the East meeting the best of the West, etc. , etc. , shrink from grandeur to petty profit-taking. (48) The question ‘Who conquered whom’ melts into insignificance: â€Å"history is written by victors, but in the case of India, it’s not always clear who won, is it? 90) It is that both the victor (West) and the vanquished (East) mutually enriched the sensibility of the two cultures. It is a strange divine coincidence that John Mist’s creation of the â€Å"Mist-Nama† and â€Å"Mishtigunj† is along a line which the ancient tradition of India endorses. The discovery of such a wonderful treasure is made possible by the research work of an Indian immig rant in America, Tara. Both John Mist and Tara are in a way immigrants. The philosophical axiom is that cultures are not fixed entities like â€Å"quantity. Naturally ‘being’ and’ becoming’ are not static. The mutations have repercussions. Though the word ‘being’ created a misleading picture of fixity and permanence, it has the character of fabric. The British conquest of India forms the context of the new in which these issues are raised indirectly. The history of Mishtigunj created by British Hindu John Mist puts obstacles in the way of glibly accepting the two categories ‘being’ and ‘becoming’. What determines history is not its concern with outward form but the ‘inner implications’ is which it unconsciously creates. It is this history which has created a martyr, John Mist. Tara Lata Gangooly represents the best of the East and her predecessor John Mist represents both the best of the East and the best of the West. Characters like Virgil Treadwell are more concerned with the British form and decorum than with the essence of life. Both John Mist and Tara Lata Gangooly live at a deeper level while men like Virgil Treadwell move on a superficial plane. There are many places where Virgil Treadwell is compared to Churchill and Nixon and he is satirized subtly. Both John Mist and Tara Lata died a martyr’s death. The former was hanged in 1880 on a charge of disobedience of the British Colonial venture and the latter died in a prison in 1943 on the same charges of treason, sedition and disobedience. These events and situations by themselves are utterly insignificant. But the effect and impact they leave have a lasting value. It is this fact which enable the readers arrives at a philosophical link between being and becoming both is that the reality of life permits a movement between being and becoming. Liking John Mist, Tara Lata, Virgil and their life styles lead the leader draw an intelligent interference events and circumstances keeps them in a state of transition and transformation. It is a great achievement on the part of the novelist to aim at an imaginative-historical reconstruction of Mishtigunj. Bharathi Mukherjee is not a thoughless immigrant. Her loyalty to the essence of life gives her a new responsibility to rephrase the issue of the contact and correlation between being and becoming. How to cite Victimization of Women in Society with Regard to Anita Nair, S Ladiescoupe, Essay examples

History of Golf Essay Example For Students

History of Golf Essay History of Golf: In 1788, one of the greatest days in sports, the firstgolf course was built in Scotland. Scotland is considered to be the birthplaceof golf. The game of golf began its destiny in time towards becoming populararound the world. This weird and complex game did not reach the United Statesuntil 1844, in New York, where the first golf course was built. -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-Category:MiscellaneousPaper Title:History of GolfText:In 1788, one of the greatest days in sports, the first golf course was builtin Scotland. Scotland is considered to be the birthplace of golf. The game ofgolf began its destiny in time towards becoming popular around the world. Thisweird and complex game did not reach the United States until 1844, in New York,where the first golf course was built. Some where in time the game of golf lostits prestige in the United States. The professionals are mostly the only onesthat treat this game how it should be treated. Some Americans have no respectand have no idea what they are doing to the game. The Scottish are verydifferent because they understand and treat the game how it should be treated,with prestige and etiquette. Golfers that have taken up the game in the statesjust dont have the same attitude towards the game. I wish people would realizehow the game is suppo sed to be played and treated. I think one of the main reasons golf is taken more serious in Scotland isbecause it originated there and everyone was taught to play it the correct way. In Scotland, you will never see anyone throwing a club or damaging the turf. They always take great care of the course because they respect it. They know howrude it is to act like that and they are all about etiquette. Everyone knowsthis is a gentlemans game, as many people have called it. Theyliterally take it to heart, it is so impressive. When the Scottish play the gamethey follow the rules very strictly. They never touch the ball no matter howdifficult or unlucky spot it ends up in. If it gets buried in the high grass orcaught behind a tree, they wont move it. They play it where itlies, as it is said. They never bend the rules or shave strokes. They arecompletely honest with themselves and others. This type of behavior makes thegame so much more fair and enjoyable because they dont cheat other people orthemselves. They take what they get and realize that it is a part of golf. The Americans, on the other hand, are a different story. For the most partthey are totally opposite from the Scottish. I say most people because theprofessionals and some others understand and respect the game because they havebeen taught or brought up correctly. Too many people want to throw clubs anddamage the turf. It shows no respect and it makes them look like a fool. Etiquette is a major part of golf and not enough people display it. TheAmericans also dont like to follow the rules. They take the easy way out, totry to get an advantage. When you do that you are beating no one but your self. They are always moving the ball, trying to get the best possible spot. Donttouch it, play it where it lies, thats what this games is all about. They arealways bending the rules some way or shaving strokes. The worst part is theydont think it is cheating, they think it is okay. The Americans need to be morehonest because in the long run it will help them and their golf game so muchmore. I am a perfect example of why this is true. I used to be a typicalAmerican and play like everyone else does. I didnt realize this until one daywhen my dad caught me cheating when I was a freshman in high school. I wouldverather got caught cheating by anyone else than my own father. It made me realizehow golf is supposed to be played, with etiquette and honesty. .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 , .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 .postImageUrl , .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 , .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612:hover , .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612:visited , .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612:active { border:0!important; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612:active , .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612 .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue00914cc4f6ab3361e5a74605fe5b612:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemmingway EssayIn conclusion I want everyone to realize how different these two cultures actbecause sometimes Americans think we know it all and do everything the rightway. I am very thankful for the experience that I was in with my father. It mademe realize how everyone around me was just as foolish as I was. Us Americanscould learn a lot from the Scottish people. One of my dreams has always been toplay golf in Scotland. When I arrived here at Butler I learned that once everyfour years the golf team takes a summer trip to Scotland to play golf for twoweeks. I will definitely make sure that I qualify to go on that trip. -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Marijuana Should Be Legal Essays - Medicinal Plants, Entheogens

Marijuana Should Be Legal Seven Leaves Arent Bad: Marijuana Should Be Legal Thesis: Should marijuana be legalized and can it be used in positive ways? In 1937, the Marijuana Tax Stamp Act prohibited the use, sale, and cultivation of hemp/marijuana in the United States. Marijuana is a drug that is highly used through out the world. It comes from the cannabis plant. THC which stands for delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol is the major psychoactive ingredient. Over sixty five million Americans today use marijuana. Today it is a lot stronger than how it used to be in the 1970s because of careful cultivation. It can be smoked threw a pipe, joint, or it can even be used as an ingredient in food. Although the effect it has as an ingredient isnt as strong as it would be if you smoked it. It all depends on how long the person smoking it holds in it their lungs. The more you hold it in the more the drug gets into your bloodstream. Marijuana is not just a drug to be used as to get high with. It is a drug that needs to become legal so it can help heal people with certain disea ses and it can be useful for industrial reasons as well. There are different feelings a person can have when you use marijuana. In low to moderate doses, marijuana typically creates a mild sense of euphoria, a sense of slowed time, a dreamy sort of self-absorption, and some impairment in thinking and communicating (Hales 491). Usually the sense of being high happens within thirty minutes and usually lasts about three Aizkalns 2 hours. Sometimes when someone is new at smoking marijuana they can experience an anxiety attack. The immediate physical effects of marijuana include increased pulse rate, bloodshot eyes, dry mouth and throat, slowed reaction times, impaired motor skills, increase appetite, and diminished short-term memory (Hales 492). Some of these effects can help someone as unbelievable as it seems. If marijuana is more harmful to society than the laws, then the laws should be retained. If the laws are more harmful than the substance, the laws should be changed (Rosenthal 1). Marijuana can reduce suffering for some illnesses out there today. A cancer patient by the name of Richard Brookhiser responded to the contention that marijuana has not allowed the necessary testing. He also rejected the argument that allowing sick people to use the drug would encourage people to use take the drug. In November 1996, the voters of California and Arizona make it legal to use marijuana as a medicine. The Clinton administration said these actions were too rash. But for me, they came in the wrong states and four years too late. In 1992, my doctor in New York told me that I had metastasized testicular cancer, which required chemotherapy. To deal with the resulting nausea, I took legal antiemetic drugs, but after a while they didnt work. Then, I turned to pot (qtd. In Bender 149). Brookhiser had used marijuana to help him have cravings for food. When someone goes threw chemotherapy you lose your Aizkalns 3 appetite and you are really nauseated. Marijuana can increase your appetite and help you want to eat your food. Cancer patients are not the only sick people who get relief from smoking pot. It has a wide variety of therapeutic applications, and is frequently beneficial in treating many conditions. Some are people who have the AIDS virus, it can help them reduce the nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite caused by the ailment itself and by treatment with AZT and other medicines. It can help people with Asthma. Several studies have shown that THC reacts as a bronchodilator and reverses bronchial constriction. Although conventional bronchodilators work faster, THC has been shown to last longer and with considerable less risk (Rosenthal 68). New evidence has shown that marijuana is an autoimmune modulator in arthritis and other autoimmune diseases. Marijuana can alleviate the debilitating, chronic pain caused by myriad disorders and injuries. Marijuana has been shown to help gently and naturally for people with depression and other mood disorders. In contrast, conventional antidepressant drugs lik e lithium, tricyclics, and MAO inhibitors have serious health risks and side effects (Rosenthal 68). Marijuana is used to

The opportunity to succeed as women entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia compared with UK

The opportunity to succeed as women entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia compared with UK Introduction Both males and females in the society have unique gender roles which they play in the society. Although they have equal opportunities in life, the latter has historically struggled to assume a better position in a male dominated world. In spite of this, the case of the developed world is quite unique since women seem to be at the centre stage of development controlling more than 30 percent of businesses.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The opportunity to succeed as women entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia compared with UK specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These developed economies are being transformed by females (Al-Ghazali Sadi, 2010 pp.4-5). In Saudi Arabia alone, about 45 percent of the entire population is made up of females. This figure is a bit lower compared to that of the United States. About 51 percent of the population in US is women. However, the Saudi Arabian disparity has been caused by the inf lux of several foreign male workers in Saudi Arabia leading to a lower female population. There are about 5.6 million expatriates in Saudi Arabia majority being men (UMUC Working paper, 2009, par. 7). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia hosts about 23,000 businesswomen with a total of 62 billion dollars stacked in their accounts besides other resources. By 2008, it was reported that a total of ten business executives who were women from Middle East made their record as among the best 100 bankers worldwide, indicating how women have not only excelled in conducting business, but are also great entrepreneurs and skilful in the business world (AlMunajjed, 1997 pp.141-143). There are quite a number of business solution that have been adopted in the last five years to enable women have a conducive business environment that promises success. One of the compelling factors that will make Saudi women excel in business is education. Over 58 percent of university graduates are females. In addition, the Saudi economy is still young and has a higher prospect of growth. Moreover, the Kingdom is well endowed with resources that are needed in any successful business environment. This has made the Saudi society to grow rapidly both in terms of capital accumulation and surplus investments.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Indeed, the aforementioned factors are great propellers for Saudi women who are planning to engage in entrepreneurial activities, including those who are in various businesses (Powell, 1993 p. 34). This paper seeks to extensively explore the various opportunities that women have for successful business operation in Saudi Arabia compared to United Kingdom. The Public verses private sector Both the public and private sectors play an integral role in building the economy of any country and Saudi Arabia is not an exception. While the public sector is run and managed by the government, the main players in the private sector are individuals who set up their own businesses and run them as private entities (AlMunajjed, 2009 p. 6). Each of these sectors has unique merits and demerits. For instance, there are individuals who would prefer to be employed in the public sector largely due to job security and stable salary. By the side, the private sector may also promise better salaries among other fringe benefits that come along with the job descriptions. The working environment may be enjoyable alongside flexibility at work which enhances creativity as well as skill development. The Small Businesses and available opportunities In spite of the existence small businesses in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, their variance has been remarkable over the past ten years both in terms of quality and number. This has also been the trend across the world (Zoepf, 2010 par.3). The private sector is steadily supplementing the public sector through spontaneou s growth. It is out of the small businesses that developed economies such as that of US have seen the light of day in economic progress. Moreover, small businesses have remarkably shaped the way business is done and as a result, the Saudi economy is experiencing growth mainly due to the existence and expansion of small businesses. It has also been reported that small businesses are responsible for over 75 percent of new jobs being created (Heathfield, 2010). Similarly, the UK economy has been positively impacted by the growth impetus of small businesses. It is estimated that small firms are contributing significantly to employment creation.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The opportunity to succeed as women entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia compared with UK specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Despite the enormous contribution of small businesses to the economy of Saudi Arabia, there are still several hiccups that demand t o be resolved. It is imperative to note that the impacts of globalization is gradually injecting numerous changes in the small business world since the markets are now being integrated and also opened up to the world economy (Carter, Mason Tagg, 2004 p.76). Products and services can now be sold not only within the borders of the Saudi economy but also in other destinations. Hence, the element of competition is in board and cannot be ignored at all. Both the legislators as well as policy makers are gaining more interest in the development of small businesses largely due to the impact of this sector to the economy. It is also believe that small businesses in Saudi Arabia (SMEs) is the main channel through which the private sector can boast of investment. Throughout the kingdom, the small businesses, most of which are run by women, constitute over 90% of the private sector investment (Zoepf, 2010 par.5). As already mentioned, these small businesses have been deemed to be the major crea tors of employment in Saudi Arabia. Consequently, poverty alleviation is being celebrated due to small business not to mention the ability of these businesses to foster growth and innovation in business culture and technology. In addition, it is through the small businesses that new products and services are being developed to meet the growing needs of the population in the entire Kingdom. Further estimates indicate that over 50 percent growth in the entire economy is expected to be realized in Saudi Arabia in the near future and this will mainly be contributed by small and medium sized enterprises. It is against this backdrop that women in Saudi Arabia stand a higher chance of developing and growing their business skills both now and in the future (Marlow Carter, 2005, pp.47-53). Better still, they have a better chance to succeed as entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia as can be seen by the numerous opportunities for growth. However, the worry that dons the small and medium sized enterpr ises under small businesses is that growth and prosperity is still being hindered by the very fact that the basic tools required are not readily in place. The small businesses operated by women in Saudi Arabia can only prosper if the right tools and business mechanics are put in place.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, these small and medium sized enterprise lack adequate funds and various means through which they can access credit facilities. Contrary to the UK, the credit facilities are adequate and small business can fairly borrow to expand on their businesses. Worse still, small businesses in Saudi Arabia also face stiff government regulations that require them to comply with numerous policies. The red tape for foreigners is even tighter. Moreover, the ignorance on the relative importance and contribution of small business has led to lack of statistics on their market progress and hence, they mainly operate without the much needed figures for carrying out business decisions. This is a similar case with many developing economies. Therefore, the success of women in small and medium sized business enterprises will aptly require government intervention. The support from government will equally demand the private sector to participate and cooperate fully. Large and well established en terprises in the UK are indeed making a mark in developing and supporting the small businesses over and above the government support which is already in place. Furthermore, there is a closer private-public sector partnership in UK that has enabled a profitable working environment among small businesses. This is a similar case with Saudi Arabia although the ties between the two sectors are not very strong. In UK, there is a practical working framework that entails policy formulation on the progress and needs of small and medium sized enterprises. There is a systematic approach through which the government of the day is working closely with small businesses to ensure that they grow. In comparison to Saudi Arabia, it is a lot easier to seek funding from the public sector to initiate small business in UK. Business women in Saudi Arabia would reach greater heights if and only if there were clear policy formulations in the Kingdom that seeks to support them in their business endeavors Nat ure of entrepreneurs for women in Saudi Arabia The Saudi Arabian woman has been affected by quite a number of barriers in her attempt to excel in doing business in the kingdom. For instance, the cultural setback that requires women to be submissive and seek permission from their male partners before engaging themselves in any decisions is a major setback. In takes a long before they can embark on serious business while in some cases, the permission is not granted. This has adversely affected the business merit of these women bearing in mind that they have to compete equally with their male business rivals in the market (UMUC Working Paper Series, 2009, par.10). Another cultural hindrance emanates from the fact that women are not permitted to drive in Saudi Arabia. It is common knowledge that any business person needs to travel frequently and when this is not possible, then most business deals may go sour. Contrary to the UK case, women have the liberty to drive freely and conduct th eir own businesses. While consulting their male partners is necessary before making some decisions, it is not a mandatory. Additionally, there are limited government programs that have been tailor made to reach out for women in small businesses. In UK, such programs are in place and women are in a position to expand their businesses with much ease (Omar, 2008, pp 34-37). However, the major disadvantage in UK is that small and medium sized enterprises are not very common and are not necessarily given the best concern in the business world. The economy has grown by double digits and only those with adequate capital may enjoy starting and running businesses in UK (Al-Ghazali Sadi, 2010 pp.6-9). In other words, it is cheaper to start and maintain a mini business in Saudi Arabia than in UK. The role of gender The challenge posed by gender when staring and running small businesses is not limited in Saudi Arabia only. Despite the fact that there is no evidence that segregate enterprise ow nership along gender line, current statistics reveal that only 15 percent of all business units are owned by women in UK while the remaining half is owned by males (Marlow Patton, 2005 p.48). Furthermore, there is minimal statistical evidence on the growing number of women engaging in self employment through small and medium sized enterprises. For the past two decades or so, the increase in small business among women in UK has been small. Self employment among women has more been stagnant than growing and this has posed more concern on whether small and medium sized enterprises are well placed as alternative sources of employment especially among women (Madhi Barrientos, 2003 p.112). Comparatively, Saudi Arabian case has been one of the growing patterns in small and medium sized enterprises. As already noted the economy is still young, resources are abundant and in spite of lack of structured government support and funding, Saudi economy still provides the best opportunity for gro wing small businesses. It should also be noted that the very small businesses heavily depend on the immediate population. The Saudi population is indeed an asset and impetus to the growth of its small business portfolio. Further research conducted in UK reveals that the likelihood of women becoming self employed is lower than men beside the bare fact that their business skills differ significantly from men (Business.com, 2010 par. 1). There seems to be a completely business platform and ideals in UK compared to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Khan, 2010). For women who engage in small businesses as part of self employment, they mostly take part in traditional occupational sectors that have been known for ages like finance and education. By the side, there are those who work on part-time basis. From this perspective, it is definite that gender has influenced women participation in small business both in UK and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and so it may not necessarily be a determining fa ctor when carrying out comparative advantage between doing business either in UK or Saudi Arabia (Johnson, Sear Jenkins, 2000 pp.55-59). Being a social construction, gender is largely pinned to ether masculine or feminine characteristics. Right from the perspective of gender, stereotypes emerge such as the one that ascribes to the inability of a woman to manage personal business well without getting assistance from a male person. For this reason, there are myriad of professional organizations that have been set up to act as custodian for women enterprises especially in Saudi Arabia. These organizations are managed professionally to assist in uplifting the level and expertise of women involvement in small and business enterprises without being sidelined by gender and other cultural stereotypes. Role of small businesses The role played by small and medium sized enterprises in the Saudi economy has been given much importance than in UK. The Saudi government believes that its economy w ould only grow if the small business are recognized and supported (Coleman, 2000 pp.38-40). For women, this must be a real impetus for growing their businesses in Saudi Arabia than in UK. To begin with, small, and medium sized enterprises have significantly lowered the rate of high unemployed which was once being experienced in the economy. It is worth to note that large scale enterprises do not have the capacity to employ the growing population. It is only through the creation of small businesses that unemployment can be brought down by double digits. Moreover, the small and medium sized enterprises are also easy to start and administer in comparison to large scale business establishments. Small capital is required and the legal requirements are also minimal. For small and medium sized enterprises under the umbrella of small businesses, they have limited liability and therefore they can remain vibrant in the market in spite of the dynamics. Nonetheless, securing sufficient funding for these small businesses is still a hurdle especially in Saudi Arabia. Moreover, they have weak capacities that delay expansion of their working capacities. Women in Saudi Arabia are more likely to succeed in small businesses there bearing in mind that up to 92% of businesses there are made up of small and medium sized enterprises, a practice not common in UK (Federation of Small Businesses, 2002 par. 3). Although the small businesses are major drivers of the Saudi economy, their overall contribution to the GDP stands at only 33%. It is against this backdrop that the government has initiated the ‘kafallah’ program to assist in the process of financing small and medium sized enterprises in the Kingdom. For women aspiring to start small businesses in Saudi Arabia, they have a higher chance of succeeding with a shorter time than their peers in UK. Successful business women in UK In spite of the gender and other cultural factors working against the success of women in sma ll and medium-sized enterprises, there are those female personalities who have made a mark in the business world in UK and around the world. One such successful woman in UK is Deborah Meaden. Although she is perceived to be highly entrepreneurial, Meaden is most likely to have crafted her business skills and ideas from the male dominated society without the fear of being outwitted. She had a business mind from the early stages of her life and would settle for nothing less than her own run enterprise. She started off with the importation of glass and ceramics barely at 19 years (Burke Davidson, 2000 pp.38-42). She has grown her business empire by leaps and bounds. In one of his latest establishments, Meaden started a marketing research company having gained vast knowledge in marketing from her previous business outfits. Conclusion In recap, it is vital to note that the Saudi Arabian economy is well placed both in terms of resources and human capital required to start small and mediu m-sized enterprises. The striking difference between the two economies namely UK and Saudi Arabia is that the latter is still in its growing phase while the former seems to be static especially in the growth and expansion of SMEs. It is against this background that women who engage in small businesses in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia have a higher probability of excelling than those in UK. Additionally, small and medium-sized business enterprises remain to be major contributors to both Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and overall economic growth in developing and advanced countries. It is only through the public-private sector support that small businesses will ever grow to meaningful levels. References Al-Ghazali, M. Sadi, M. (2010). Doing business with impudence: A focus on women entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia.’ African Journal of Business management. 4(1): 1-11. AlMunajjed, M. (1997). Women in Saudi Arabia Today. London: Macmillan. AlMunajjed, M. (2009). Women’s Employ ment in Saudi Arabia A Major Challenge. Booz Co. Retrieved from booz.com/media/uploads/Womens_Employment_in_Saudi_Arabia.pdf Burke, R. Davidson, M. (2000). Women in Management. SAGE Publications: London. Business.com (2010). Research solutions. Retrieved from www.business.com Carter, S. Mason, C. Tagg, S. (2004). Lifting the Barriers to Business Survival and Growth: The FSB Biennial Survey 2004, London: Federation of Small Businesses. Coleman, S. (2000). Access to Capital and Terms of Credit: A Comparison of Men- and Women-Owned Small Businesses, Journal of Small Business Management, 38 (3): 37–52. Federation of Small Businesses (FSB) (2002). Lifting the Barriers to Growth in UK Small Businesses, Blackpool. Heathfield, S. (2010). Women and Work: Then, Now, and Predicting the Future for Women in the Workplace: women in Business. Retrieved from http://humanresources.about.com/od/worklifebalance/a/business_women_4.htm Johnson, S., Sear, L. Jenkins, A. (2000). Small Business P olicy, Support and Governance, in Carter, S. Jones-Evans, D., Enterprise and Small Business, London: Prentice Hall. Khan, S. (2010). Women Fight Back: Dont Ban the Veil! The Daily Beast. Available at: thedailybeast.com/blogs-and-stories/2010-04-08/why-quebecs-veil- ban-is-bad-for-muslim-women/ Madhi, S.T. Barrientos, A. (2003). Saudisation and employment in Saudi Arabia. Career Development International. Marlow, S.P. Carter, S.P. (2005). Access to finance: women’s enterprise and the role of the accountant, London: Certified Accountants Educational Trust. Marlow, S. and Patton, D. (2005). All Credit to Men? ddEntrepreneurship, Finance and Gender, Entrepreneurship, Theory and Practice, 29 (3): 526–41. Omair, K. (2008). Women in management in the Arab context. Education, Business and Society: Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues. Powell, G (1993). Women Men in Management (2nded.), London: SAGE Publications. UMUC Working Paper Series (2009) University of Maryland Universi ty College. Retrieved from http://chaucer.umuc.edu/wp/2009/01/wp-2009-002-women- entrepreneur.html Zoepf, K. (2010). Talk of Womens Rights Divides Saudi Arabia. The New York Times. Retrieved from nytimes.com/2010/06/01/world/middleeast/01iht- saudi.html?pagewanted=1src=me.

Compare and contrast Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Compare and contrast - Essay Example Also, along with the teacher, a school counselor should help a child who is struggling with learning or using appropriate behavior. The role of the principal is to ensure that the discipline plan is being used appropriately school wide. Q2. Identify and discuss the three organizing principles about the learner. There are three principles about the learner. The first principle is that the learner should always be treated with respect. The teacher should treat the learner with respect, the other learners should treat each other with respect and the learner should respect himself. The second is that every learner has a great capacity to learn. Although all students start at a different level, they all have a great capacity to learn and grow from the level where they started. Effort will need to be made by the learner and the teacher to help the learner grow. The last principle states that the learner's behavior or performance always has a purpose. The purpose will vary with different le arners in different circumstances. Most misbehavior happens with one of these 4 purposes: seeking attention, seeking power, seeking revenge or lack of self confidence. An example of a student misbehaving who is seeking attention would be a student who calls out at inappropriate times during class.

Organizational Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Organizational Behaviour - Essay Example Practitioners are fast recognizing the benefits that could be reaped in by concentrating on fundamentals of employee engagement. In the meanwhile, challenges that are anticipated to be confronted in this journey make the topic of employee engagement interesting and worth analyzing. Meaning of employee engagement Engagement in layman terms means attached or associated with. Translating it to employee perspective, employee engagement refers to situation where employees are both physically and mentally linked to their jobs (Pati and Kumar 2010, 126). Engagement in job is measured in terms of motivation level, creativity, volunteerism, enthusiasm, absenteeism, customer satisfaction, retention and inspiration (Centaur Communication 2007, 40). Unlike unengaged employees, engaged employees are dedicated to their work and put in their best efforts into the tasks because they love their job. They feel happy and satisfied of their activities, accomplishments and efforts and are always striving to better their performance. An important component in employee engagement is the emotional connection between the employee and the work. In employee engagement, employees always feel attracted towards their work. Success delights them while failure encourages them. Not only time, employee engagement is characterized by heart and mind involvement by employees (Seijts and Crim 2006, 3). Managerial benefits associated with employee engagement The reason employee engagement is being emphasized upon by business and managerial community so aggressively lies in multifarious advantages accrued by this single ideology. Though employee engagement is a concept pointed towards individual behavioral patterns, implications of changes in this individual pattern get explicitly reflected in terms of organizational performance, profitability and productivity. Typically, employees are made aware of their job duties, roles and responsibilities the time they are inducted in the organization. However, clarity of function is one aspect achieved by engagement of employee in his/her work which implies ‘above and beyond’ involvement of employees in their black and white job roles. Nowadays, business and markets are marked by fast paced technology, cut throat competition and urge to be innovative in product and service offerings. In this light, the onus of transforming inputs into outputs with limited tangibles rest on employees. Cost effectiveness and efficiency matter the most now where making optimum use of productivity from employees forms the cornerstone to success. In this light, unanticipated and dynamic business environment pose multiple challenges in front of employees to cope up with decision making, maintaining commitment and motivation levels and be clear of the changing and broadened roles and responsibilities. Employee engagement serves as a tool which infuses interest, understanding and consistency in employee functioning which facilitates aligning individu al goals with that of the corporate objectives (Masson et al. 2008, 56). Optimism is a direct benefit derived from employee engagement which refers to maintaining a positive mind set and feeling good about the processes and outcomes of unforeseen events. Optimism as a psychological term is very crucial for an individual, group or organization. Individually, optimism

An Overview Into Green Tea Market Of Thailand Marketing Essay

An Overview Into Green Tea Market Of Thailand Marketing Essay One of the most popular markets in Thailand apparently is the green tea market. The competition is fierce, old and new faces, big and small, and all of them have the expectation that the sales of their green tea products will soar up in the chart eventually. Oishi Group Public Company Limited, nobody in Thailand will never heard of this company as it is the current green tea leader, is expecting that the market value will reach impressive ten billion baht by the end of this year. The currently green tea market value is at eight billion baht. Such as the new players, T.A.C. Beverage Company Limited has invested about 50 million baht to promote the new products, green tea products Shenya. They have launch two flavours of Shenya into the market. As the same as other players, their products are shelved in most of the convenience stores. Regarding the promotional strategy by T.A.C. beverage Company Limited plans to increase the growth through a discount rate in price strategy, that it will sell their product Shenya at 15 baht for a set period of time, as other selling it at 20 baht. Another notable green tea company is Uni-President Company Limited. They launch the green tea products to Thailand in 2001, as we all know in the name of Unif brand or as we know Unif-Green Tea. The company use to be the market leader of green tea until Oishi took over the throne for a short time. Unif and Osishi have been encounter to each other for over the past year and exchanging their seat on the top of green tea pedestal many times. The stance of Unif was to boost sales, and try to capture public attention by make use of emotional advertisement campaigns. One good example of it is the worm television advertisement. And at the same time, Oishi was investing in hi-technological as in anti-contaminated equipment. Oishi tend to use the strategy as in concerning the customer relationship management. As to be mention earlier that most green tea firms distribute their products at different convenience stores. But, Oishi has decided to sell their green tea products at any place that the crowd of people gather together, such as sport festival or entertainment events. With this strategy, Oishi would be able to penetrate and get in touch with different type of customers more effectively and easily. PESTEL Analysis P-Political Political problem will affect the trade political conditions E-Economic Raw material price is varying. When raw material price become vary, the company cannot adjust the price of the product to match with the price of it raw material. S-Social As the worker employment rate increase, the supply of employment surely increases but the paid decrease. T-Technology Technology development in information and specific communication using internet. The opportunity by using internet increase as to do marketing activities in which including more competitors. E-Environmental In the present day people turn to a healthy and more environmental friendly product. -The compete of business specific in idea about concern healthy to increase adaptation. In business area the competition in a specific idea concerning health have become more popular to increase adaptation L-Legal Concerning the opening hour for department store. There are many factors in which will affect the decision of managers of many organizations, the help analysis those factors, PESTEL model can be used. The Political factors, in which the policies in which government have set the opening hour of department store or office in which can affect the revenue of the company easily. However, the organization still has the help of 7-eleven in which can be open 24 hour, selling ratio product over night. Also the Political problem can affect the trade political condition as the trader will become more worry about the situation inside the country. Economic factors will related to the raw material price in which if the price is vary the company will have a hard time or sometime cannot adjust the price of the product to match the price of the raw material correctly. It is a grave matter in gaining profit or causing a loss if the price is too unstable. Worker employment rate is related to the social factors. It is good that the rate of employment i ncreasing mean people got jobs to do and get paid, but the paid will be decreasing as in common sense. Technology factor is an important factor that will support the company reputation and marketing. By using internet and development of communication marketing activities become more fierce and also with more competition. Environment factor is the factor that people have paid attention to in the present day as by using a material that preserving the environmental friendly will increase the good reputation for the company and in return the customers will gain a healthy diet product from the company. For the legal factor issue will be related to the political factor as to be concerning about the opening hour for department store. Five Forces Model Current rivalry among existing firms: Threat: -The growth in sale of industry is slow -High cost of fixing and inventory storage costs. -No switching cost or differentiation -Large additional of capacity space require. -Vary of competitors. Opportunity -Few competitors -Not much of strong opponents -Low risk strategy -Easy to exit Potential entry of new competitors: Threat: -Potential cost disadvantages doesnt exist -Not much different in products. -Require a minimal amount of capital -Minimal switching costs -Government policy protection is out of reach. Opportunity: -Large economic scale -Able to control distribution access channel. Potential development of substitute products: Threat: -Few or little substitutes of goods. -Several not-so-good substitutes. Opportunity: -None Bargaining power of suppliers: Threat: -A supplier is enabling or able to gain ability to do whatever the buying industry does. Opportunity: -Supplying industry has a lot of companies. -Substitute product do exist for suppliers -Industry is count as an important customer. -Minimal switching cost in supplier product -Differential in suppliers product doesnt exist. Bargaining power of consumers: Threat: -Complete information will be present for the buyer -Having a standard in purchases or undifferentiated -Purchases are significant part -Buyer may have to faces few switching cost. Opportunity: -Buyers purchase small amount of volumes -Buyer is unable to manufacture products. We have used five forces model to analyze the industry and competitors of Oishi Green Tea. The results above provide at the top have shown the result of analyzing the five force model. As the result has shown, there is only one topic as low bargaining power of suppliers that provide a positive result for Oishi. In contrast, there are 4 topics that have high current rivalry among the existing firm, high potential entry of new competitors, high substitute products nod high bargaining power of buyers will definitely giving a negative effect on Oishi company. As in conclude, this industry, the market is not attractive to Oishi. The company should widen and invest more in to other industry such as a coffee market for example. In present day, Oishi has launch new brand as Coffio to expand their business.

Ap European History Chapter 12 Review

Week 6 Chapter Review Important People: Sir Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality. He is well-known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. In addition to running a large studio in Antwerp that produced paintings popular with nobility and art collectors throughout Europe, Rubens was a classically educated humanist scholar, art collector, and diplomat who was knighted by both Philip IV, King of Spain, and Charles I, King of England. In 1621, the Queen Mother of France, Marie de' Medici, commissioned Rubens to paint two large allegorical cycles celebrating her life and the life of her late husband, Henry IV, for the Luxembourg Palace in Paris. The Marie de' Medici cycle (now in the Louvre) was installed in 1625, and although he began work on the second series it was never completed. Marie was exiled from France in 1630 by her son, Louis XIII, and died in 1642 in the same house in Cologne where Rubens had lived as a child. After the end of the Twelve Years' Truce in 1621, the Spanish Habsburg rulers entrusted Rubens with a number of diplomatic missions. In 1624 the French ambassador wrote from Brussels: â€Å"Rubens is here to take the likeness of the prince of Poland, by order of the infanta. † Between 1627 and 1630, Rubens's diplomatic career was particularly active, and he moved between the courts of Spain and England in an attempt to bring peace between the Spanish Netherlands and the United Provinces. He also made several trips to the northern Netherlands as both an artist and a diplomat. At the courts he sometimes encountered the attitude that courtiers should not use their hands in any art or trade, but he was also received as a gentleman by many. It was during this period that Rubens was twice knighted, first by Philip IV of Spain in 1624, and then by Charles I of England in 1630. He was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree from Cambridge University in 1629. Rubens was in Madrid for eight months in 1628–1629. In addition to diplomatic negotiations, he executed several important works for Philip IV and private patrons. He also began a renewed study of Titian's paintings, copying numerous works including the Madrid Fall of Man. During this stay, he befriended the court painter Diego Velazquez and the two planned to travel to Italy together the following year. Rubens, however, returned to Antwerp and Velazquez made the journey without him. His stay in Antwerp was brief, and he soon travelled on to London where he remained until April 1630. An important work from this period is the Allegory of Peace and War. It illustrates the artist's strong concern for peace, and was given to Charles I as a gift. While Rubens's international reputation with collectors and nobility abroad continued to grow during this decade, he and his workshop also continued to paint monumental paintings for local patrons in Antwerp. The Assumption of the Virgin Mary for the Cathedral of Antwerp is one prominent example. Rubens's last decade was spent in and around Antwerp. Major works for foreign patrons still occupied him, such as the ceiling paintings for the Banqueting House at Inigo Jones's Palace of Whitehall, but he also explored more personal artistic directions. In 1630, four years after the death of his first wife, the 53-year-old painter married 16-year-old Helene Fourment. Helene inspired the voluptuous figures in many of his paintings from the 1630s, including The Feast of Venus, The Three Graces and The Judgment of Paris. In the latter painting, which was made for the Spanish court, the artist's young wife was recognized by viewers in the figure of Venus. In an intimate portrait of her, Helene Fourment in a Fur Wrap, also known as Het Pelsken, Rubens's wife is even partially modelled after classical sculptures of the Venus Pudica, such as the Medici Venus. In 1635, Rubens bought an estate outside of Antwerp, the Steen, where he spent much of his time. Landscapes, such as his Chateau de Steen with Hunter and Farmers Returning from the Fields, reflect the more personal nature of many of his later works. He also drew upon the Netherlandish traditions of Pieter Bruegel the Elder for inspiration in later works like Flemish Kermis. Rubens died from gout on 30 May 1640. He was interred in Saint Jacob's church, Antwerp. Lord Michel Eyquem de was one of the most influential writers of the French Renaissance, known for popularising the essay as a literary genre and is popularly thought of as the father of Modern Skepticism. He became famous for his effortless ability to merge serious intellectual speculation with casual anecdotes and autobiography—and his massive volume Essais (translated literally as â€Å"Attempts†) contains, to this day, some of the most widely influential essays ever written. Montaigne had a direct influence on writers the world over, including Rene Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Friedrich Nietzsche, Stefan Zweig, Eric Hoffer, Isaac Asimov, and perhaps William Shakespeare. In his own time, Montaigne was admired more as a statesman than as an author. The tendency in his essays to digress into anecdotes and personal ruminations was seen as detrimental to proper style rather than as an innovation, and his declaration that, ‘I am myself the matter of my book', was viewed by his contemporaries as self-indulgent. In time, however, Montaigne would be recognized as embodying, perhaps better than any other author of his time, the spirit of freely entertaining doubt which began to emerge at that time. He is most famously known for his skeptical remark, ‘Que sais-je? ‘ (‘What do I know? ‘). Remarkably modern even to readers today, Montaigne's attempt to examine the world through the lens of the only thing he can depend on implicitly—his own judgment—makes him more accessible to modern readers than any other author of the Renaissance. Much of modern literary non-fiction has found inspiration in Montaigne and writers of all kinds continue to read him for his masterful balance of intellectual knowledge and personal story-telling. His fame rests on the Essais, a collection of a large number of short subjective treatments of various topics published in 1580, inspired by his studies in the classics, especially Plutarch. Montaigne's stated goal is to describe humans, and especially himself, with utter frankness. Montaigne's writings are studied within literary studies, as literature and philosophy. Inspired by his consideration of the lives and ideals of the leading figures of his age, he finds the great variety and volatility of human nature to be its most basic features. He describes his own poor memory, his ability to solve problems and mediate conflicts without truly getting emotionally involved, his disdain for the human pursuit of lasting fame, and his attempts to detach himself from worldly things to prepare for his timely death. He writes about his disgust with the religious conflicts of his time, reflecting a spirit of skepticism and belief that humans are not able to attain true certainty. The longest of his essays, Apology for Raymond Sebond, contains his famous motto, â€Å"What do I know? † Montaigne considered marriage necessary for the raising of children, but disliked strong feelings of passionate love because he saw them as detrimental to freedom. In education, he favored concrete examples and experience over the teaching of abstract knowledge that has to be accepted uncritically. His essay â€Å"On the Education of Children† is dedicated to Diana of Foix. The Essais exercised important influence on both French and English literature, in thought and style. Thinkers exploring similar ideas include Erasmus, Thomas More, and Guillaume Bude, who all worked about fifty years before Montaigne. Since Edward Capell first made the suggestion in 1780, some scholars believe that Shakespeare was familiar with Montaigne's essays. John Florio's translation of Montaigne's Essais became available to Shakespeare in English in 1603. It is suggested that Montaigne's influence is especially noticeable in â€Å"Hamlet† and â€Å"King Lear†, both in language and in the skepticism present in both plays. For an example, compare Shakespeare's Hamlet to Rosencrantz, at Hamlet Act 2, scene 2, about line 240, with an earlier quote of Montaigne. â€Å"†¦ for there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so. To me it is a prison. â€Å". â€Å"Whether the events in our life are good or bad greatly depends on the way we perceive them. † Much of Blaise Pascal's skepticism in his Pensees was a result of reading Montaigne. Ralph Waldo Emerson chose â€Å"Montaigne; or, the Skeptic† as a subject of one of his series of lectures entitled Representative Men, along side other subjects such as Shakespeare and Plato. Friedrich Nietzsche judged of Montaigne: â€Å"That such a man wrote has truly augmented the joy of living on this Earth† Valentin Weigel was a German theologian, philosopher and mystical writer, from Saxony, and an important precursor of later theosophy. In English he is often called Valentine Weigel. He was born at Hayn, near Dresden, into a Catholic family. He studied at Meissen, Leipzig, and Wittenberg. In 1567 he became a pastor at Zschopau, near Chemnitz. There, he lived out a quiet life, engaged in his writings. Weigel was best known for his belief that the Virgin Mary was herself the product of a virgin birth. He based his belief on the idea of the immaculate conception, which required that Mary must also be sinless in order to bear God in the flesh. He kept his ideas secret, entrusting them only to personal friends (in contrast to Jakob Bohme). He carried out his parishioner duties and kept a low profile. He left around 6000 pages in printed or manuscript works. His ideas on human nature were only gradually and posthumously published. Johann Arndt, Gottfried Arnold, and Gottfried Leibniz helped to spread Weigel's ideas. His mysticism was marked by that of Johannes Tauler and by doctrines of Paracelsus; he was also a follower of Sebastian Franck and Caspar Schwenckfeldt. Like these two latter, he emphasized the inner life. John Calvin was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530. After religious tensions provoked a violent uprising against Protestants in France, Calvin fled to Basel, Switzerland, where he published the first edition of his seminal work The Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. In that year, Calvin was recruited by William Farel to help reform the church in Geneva. The city council resisted the implementation of Calvin and Farel's ideas, and both men were expelled. At the invitation of Martin Bucer, Calvin proceeded to Strasbourg, where he became the minister of a church of French refugees. He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva, and was eventually invited back to lead its church. Following his return, Calvin introduced new forms of church government and liturgy, despite the opposition of several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. During this time, the trial of Michael Servetus was extended by libertines in an attempt to harass Calvin. However, since Servetus was also condemned and wanted by the Inquisition, outside pressure from all over Europe forced the trial to continue. Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin's opponents were forced out. Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe. Calvin was a tireless polemic and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including Philipp Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger. In addition to the Institutes, he wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, as well as theological treatises and confessional documents. He regularly preached sermons throughout the week in Geneva. Calvin was influenced by the Augustinian tradition, which led him to expound the doctrine of predestination and the absolute sovereignty of God in salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation. Calvin's writing and preachings provided the seeds for the branch of theology that bears his name. The Reformed and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as a chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. After the deaths of Calvin and his successor, Beza, the Geneva city council gradually gained control over areas of life that were previously in the ecclesiastical domain. Increasing secularisation was accompanied by the decline of the church. Even the Geneva academie was eclipsed by universities in Leiden and Heidelberg, which became the new strongholds of Calvin's ideas, first identified as â€Å"Calvinism† by Joachim Westphal in 1552. By 1585, Geneva, once the wellspring of the reform movement, had become merely its symbol. However, Calvin had always warned against describing him as an â€Å"idol† and Geneva as a new â€Å"Jerusalem†. He encouraged people to adapt to the environments in which they found themselves. Even during his polemical exchange with Westphal, he advised a group of French-speaking refugees, who had settled in Wesel, Germany, to integrate with the local Lutheran churches. Despite his differences with the Lutherans, he did not deny that they were members of the true Church. Calvin’s recognition of the need to adapt to local conditions became an important characteristic of the reformation movement as it spread across Europe. Due to Calvin's missionary work in France, his programme of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in the Palatinate under Frederick III, which led to the formulation of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563. This and the Belgic Confession were adopted as confessional standards in the first synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in 1571. Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England (Martin Bucer, Peter Martyr, and Jan Laski) and Scotland (John Knox). During the English Civil War, the Calvinistic Puritans produced the Westminster Confession, which became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world. Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world including North America, South Africa, and Korea. Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement; but his death allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin, to succeed far beyond their borders, and to establish their own distinct character. Theodore Beza (Theodore de Beze or de Besze) was a French Protestant Christian theologian and scholar who played an important role in the Reformation. A member of the monarchomaque movement who opposed absolute monarchy, he was a disciple of John Calvin and lived most of his life in Switzerland. As Calvin's successor, Beza was very successful, not only in carrying on his work but also in giving peace to the Church at Geneva. The magistrates had fully appropriated the ideas of Calvin, and the direction of spiritual affairs, the organs of which were the â€Å"ministers of the word† and â€Å"the consistory†, was founded on a solid basis. No doctrinal controversy arose after 1564. The discussions concerned questions of a practical, social, or ecclesiastical nature, such as the supremacy of the magistrates over the pastors, freedom in preaching, and the obligation of the pastors to submit to the majority of the campagnie des pasteurs. Beza obtruded his will in no way upon his associates, and took no harsh measures against injudicious or hot-headed colleagues, though sometimes he took their cases in hand and acted as mediator; and yet he often experienced an opposition so extreme that he threatened to resign. Although he was inclined to take the part of the magistrates, he knew how to defend the rights and independence of the spiritual power when occasion arose, without, however, conceding to it such a preponderating influence as did Calvin. His activity was great. He mediated between the compagnie and the magistracy; the latter continually asked his advice even in political questions. He corresponded with all the leaders of the Reformed party in Europe. After the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572), he used his influence to give to the refugees a hospitable reception at Geneva. In 1574 he wrote his De jure magistratuum (Right of Magistrates), in which he emphatically protested against tyranny in religious matters, and affirmed that it is legitimate for a people to oppose an unworthy magistracy in a practical manner and if necessary to use weapons and depose them. Without being a great dogmatician like his master, nor a creative genius in the ecclesiastical realm, Beza had qualities which made him famous as humanist, exegete, orator, and leader in religious and political affairs, and qualified him to be the guide of the Calvinists in all Europe. In the various controversies into which he was drawn, Beza often showed an excess of irritation and intolerance, from which Bernardino Ochino, pastor of the Italian congregation at Zurich (on account of a treatise which contained some objectionable points on polygamy), and Sebastian Castellio at Basel (on account of his Latin and French translations of the Bible) had especially to suffer. With Reformed France Beza continued to maintain the closest relations. He was the moderator of the general synod which met in April, 1571, at La Rochelle and decided not to abolish church discipline or to acknowledge the civil government as head of the Church, as the Paris minister Jean Morel and the philosopher Pierre Ramus demanded; it also decided to confirm anew the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord's Supper (by the expression: â€Å"substance of the body of Christ†) against Zwinglianism, which caused a very unpleasant discussion between Beza and Ramus and Heinrich Bullinger. In the following year (May, 1572) he took an important part in the national synod at Nimes. He was also interested in the ontroversies which concerned the Augsburg Confession in Germany, especially after 1564, on the doctrine of the Person of Christ and the sacrament, and published several works against Westphal, Hesshusen, Selnecker, Johannes Brenz, and Jakob Andrea. This made him, especially after 1571, hated by all those who adhered to Lutheranism in opposition to Mela nchthon Jeanne d'Albret, also known as Jeanne III or Joan III, was the queen regnant of Navarre from 1555 to 1572. She married Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendome, and was the mother of Henry of Bourbon, who became King of Navarre and of France as Henry IV, the first Bourbon king. She became the Duchess of Vendome by marriage. She was the acknowledged spiritual and political leader of the French Huguenot movement, and a key figure in the French Wars of Religion. The power struggle between Catholics and Huguenots for control of the French court and France as a whole, led to the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion in 1562. Jeanne and Antoine were at court, when the latter made the decision to support the Catholic faction, which was headed by the House of Guise; and in consequence, threatened to repudiate Jeanne when she refused to attend Mass. Catherine de' Medici, in an attempt to steer a middle course between the two warring factions, also pleaded with Jeanne to obey her husband for the sake of peace but to no avail. Jeanne stood her ground and staunchly refused to abandon the Calvinist religion, and continued to have Protestant services conducted in her apartments. When many of the other nobles also joined the Catholic camp, Catherine had no choice but to support the Catholic faction. Fearing both her husband's and Catherine's anger, Jeanne left Paris in March 1562 and made her way south to seek refuge in Bearn. When Jeanne had stopped for a brief sojourn at her husband's ancestral chateau in Vendome on 14 May to break her lengthy homeward journey, she failed to prevent a 400-strong Huguenot force from invading the town. The soldiers marauded through the streets of Vendome, ransacked all the churches, maltreated the inhabitants, and pillaged the ducal chapel, which housed the tombs of Antoine's ancestors. In consequence, her husband adopted a belligerent stance with her. He issued orders to Blaise de Lasseran-Massencome, seigneur de Montluc to have her arrested and returned o Paris where she would subsequently be sent to a Catholic convent. She resumed her journey after quitting Vendome and managed to elude her captors, safely passing over the frontier into Bearn before she could be intercepted by the seigneur de Montluc and his troops. At the end of the year, Antoine was fatally wounded at the siege of Rouen and died before Jeanne could obtain the necessary permission to cross over enemy li nes, in order to be at his bedside where she had wished nurse him. His mistress instead was summoned to his deathbed. Jeanne henceforth ruled Navarre as the sole queen regnant; her sex being no impediment to her sovereignity. Her son Henry subsequently became â€Å"first prince of the blood†. Jeanne often brought him along on her many progresses through her domains to oversee administrative affairs. Jeanne haughtily refused an offer of matrimony issued by King Philip II of Spain who had hoped to marry her to his son, on the condition that she return to the Catholic faith. Jeanne's position in the conflicts remained relatively neutral in the beginning, being mainly preoccupied with military defences, given Navarre's geographic location beside Catholic Spain. Papal envoys arrived and tried to coerce and threaten her into returning to Catholicism and abolishing heresy within her kingdom. Her response was to coldly reply that â€Å"the authority of the Pope's legate is not recognised in Bearn†. At one stage there was a papal plot led by Pope Pius IV to have her kidnapped and turned over to the Spanish Inquistion. Jeanne was summoned to Rome to be examined for heresy under the triple penalty of excommunication, the confiscation of her property, and a declaration that her kingdom was available to any ruler who wished to invade it. This last threat alarmed King Philip, and the blatant interference by the Papacy in French affairs also enraged Catherine de' Medici who, on behalf of Charles IX, sent angry letters of protest to the Pope. The papal threats never materialised. During the French Court's royal progress between January 1564 and May 1565, Jeanne met and held talks with Catherine de' Medici at Macon and Nerac. When the third religious war broke out in 1568, however, she decided to actively support the Huguenot cause. Feeling that their lives were in danger from encroaching French Catholic and Spanish troops, Jeanne and Henry sought efuge in the Protestant stronghold of La Rochelle. As Minister of Propaganda, Jeanne wrote manifestos and composed letters to sympathetic foreign rulers, requesting their assistance. Jeanne had visualised the province of Guyenne as a â€Å"Protestant homeland† and played a leading role in the military actions from 1569 to 1570 with the aim of seeing her dream come to fru ition. Whilst at La Rochelle, she assumed control of the fortifications, finances, Intelligence gathering, and the maintaining of discipline amongst the civilian populace. She used her own jewellery as security in a loan obtained from Queen Elizabeth I of England, and oversaw the well-being of the numerous refugees who sought shelter within La Rochelle. She often accompanied Admiral de Coligny to the battlefield where the fighting was at its most intense; together they inspected the defences and rallied the Huguenot forces. Jeanne also established a religious seminary in La Rochelle, drawing the most learned Huguenot men in France within its walls. Following the Huguenot defeat on 16 March 1569 at the Battle of Jarnac where Jeanne's brother-in-law, Louis I de Bourbon, Prince de Conde was killed, Gaspard de Coligny assumed command of the Huguenot forces nominally on behalf of her son Henry and Conde's son, Henri I de Bourbon, Prince de Conde. Jeanne had established them as the legitimate leaders of the Huguenot cause. After her funeral, which was conducted according to the rites of the Protestant Church, a cortege bearing her body travelled through the streets of Vendome. She was buried beside her husband at Ducal Church of collegiale Saint-Georges. The tombs were destroyed when the church was sacked in 1793 during the French Revolution. Her son Henry succeeded her, becoming King Henry III of Navarre. In 1589, he ascended the French throne as Henry IV; founding the Bourbon line of kings. Don Fernando Alvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, 3rd Duke of Alba was a Spanish general and governor of the Spanish Netherlands, nicknamed â€Å"the Iron Duke† in the Low Countries because of his harsh and cruel rule there and his role in the execution of his political opponents and the massacre of several cities. In 1567, Philip, who was a zealous opponent of Protestantism, sent Alba into the Netherlands at the head of an army of 10,000 men, with unlimited powers for the extirpation of the heretics. Alba quickly erected a tribunal, the Council of Troubles, which soon became known to the Calvinists as the â€Å"Council of Blood,† to try all persons who had been engaged in the late commotions that the rule of Philip had excited. During the ten years it operated, thousands of people were executed. The precise number is disputed: Dutch sources cite 18,000 victims, while Spanish accounts mention only a few hundred. About 12,000 casualties can be considered as the most accurate estimate, of which 1,083 were executed. Alba imprisoned the Count of Egmont and the Count of Hoorn, the two popular leaders of the dissatisfied Dutch nobles, and had them condemned to death even though they were Catholics. Alba attempted to raise money by imposing the Spanish alcabala, a tax of 10% on all sales (â€Å"tenth penny† tax) on the Low Countries, and this aroused the opposition of many Catholic residents as well. The exiles from the Low Countries, who called themselves Geuzen (French gueux, â€Å"beggars†), encouraged by the general resistance to his government, fitted out a fleet of privateers, and after strengthening themselves by successful depredations, seized the town of Den Briel (Brielle). Thus Alba, by his unrelenting harshness, became the unwitting instrument of the future independence of the seven Dutch provinces. On 22 August, Alba, accompanied by a body of select Spanish troops, made his entry into Brussels. He immediately appointed a council to condemn without trial those suspected of heresy and rebellion. On 1 June 1568, Brussels witnessed the simultaneous decapitation of twenty-two noblemen; on 6 June followed the execution of the Counts of Egmond and Hoorne. The fleet of the exiles, having met the Spanish fleet, defeated it and reduced Holland and Mons. The States of Holland, assembling at Dordrecht in 1572, openly declared against Alba's government, and marshaled under the banners of the prince of Orange. Alba's preparations to defeat the gathering storm were made with his usual rapidity and vigour, and he succeeded in recovering Mons, Mechelen and Zutphen, under the conduct of his son Don Fadrique. All three cities were sacked and many civilians killed. With the exception of Zeeland and Holland, he regained all the provinces; and at last his son stormed Naarden, massacring every man, woman and child, proceeded to invest the city of Haarlem, which, after standing an obstinate siege, was taken and pillaged. Their next attack was upon Alkmaar; but there they were met with such desperate resistance that Alba was forced to retire. William II, Prince of Orange was sovereign Prince of Orange and stadtholder of the United Provinces of the Netherlands from 14 March 1647 until his death three years later. William II, Prince of Orange, was the son of stadtholder Frederik Hendrik of Orange and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. William the Silent had been succeeded in the position of stadtholder and as commander of the Dutch States Army by his son Maurits of Nassau, who in turn was followed by his brother Frederick Henry. William II’s ancestors governed in conjunction with the States-General, an assembly made up of representatives of each of the seven provinces but usually dominated by the largest and wealthiest province, Holland. On May 2, 1641, William married Mary Henrietta Stuart, the Princess Royal, the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England and Queen Henrietta Maria in the Chapel Royal, Whitehall Palace, London. In 1648 he opposed acceptance of the Treaty of Munster, despite the fact that it recognized the independence of the Netherlands. Secretly, William opened his own negotiations with France with the goal of extending his own territory under a centralized government. In addition, he worked for the restoration of his brother-in-law, Charles II, to the throne of England. In 1650 William II became involved in a bitter quarrel with the province of Holland and the powerful regents of Amsterdam, like Andries Bicker and his cousin Cornelis de Graeff over troop reduction following the Treaty of Munster. William opposed the reduction in the size of the army which would diminish his powerbase. This resulted in William putting eight members (oa. Jacob de Witt) of the provincial assembly in prison in the castle of Loevestein. In addition he sent his cousin Willem Frederik of Nassau-Dietz with an army of 10 thousand troops with the aim of taking Amsterdam by force. Bad weather foiled this campaign. After having served as stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel for only three years, he died of smallpox in 1650. His son William was born one week after his death. This was the beginning of the First Stadtholderless Period for the provinces Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel. His son succeeded him in 1672 as stadtholder and later, in 1689, also became king of England. Pope Saint Pius V, born Antonio Ghislieri, was Pope from 1566 to 1572 and is a saint of the Catholic Church. He is chiefly notable for his role in the Council of Trent, the Counter-Reformation, and the standardization of the Roman liturgy within the Latin Church. Pius V declared saint Thomas Aquinas a Doctor of the Church and patronized prominent sacred music composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. As Cardinal Ghislieri he gained a reputation for putting orthodoxy before personalities, prosecuting eight French Bishops for heresy. He also stood firm against nepotism, rebuking his predecessor Pope Pius IV to his face when he wanted to make a 13-year old member of his family a cardinal and subsidise a nephew from the Papal treasury. In affairs of state, Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth I of England for schism and persecutions of English Catholics during her reign. He also arranged the formation of the Holy League, an alliance of Catholic states. Although outnumbered, the Holy League famously defeated the Ottomans, who had threatened to overrun Europe, at the Battle of Lepanto. This victory Pius V attributed to the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary and instituted the feast, Our Lady of Victory. St Pius V recognized attacks on papal supremacy in the Catholic Church and was desirous of limiting their advancement. In France, where his influence was stronger, he took several measures to oppose the Protestant Huguenots. He directed the dismissal of Cardinal Odet de Coligny and seven bishops, nullified the royal edict tolerating the extramural services of the Reformers, introduced the Roman catechism, restored papal discipline, and strenuously opposed all compromise with the Huguenot nobility. Pius V died on 1 May 1572. He was succeeded by Pope Gregory XIII. In 1696, the process of Pius's canonisation was started through the efforts of the Master of the Order of Preachers, Antonin Cloche. He also immediately commissioned a representative tomb from the sculptor Pierre Le Gros the Younger to be erected in the Sistine Chapel of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. The pope's body was placed in it in 1698. St Pius V was beatified by Pope Clement X in the year 1672, and was later canonized by Pope Clement XI on 24 May 1712. Pope St Pius V also helped financially in the construction of the city of Valletta, Malta's capital city by sending his military engineer Francesco Laparelli to design the fortification walls. Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von Wallenstein, actually von Waldstein, was a Bohemian soldier and politician, who offered his services, and an army of 30,000 to 100,000 men during the Danish period of the Thirty Years' War, to the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II. He became the supreme commander of the armies of the Habsburg Monarchy and one of the major figures of the Thirty Years' War. A successful generalissimo who had made himself ruler of the lands of the Duchy of Friedland in northern Bohemia, Wallenstein found himself released from service in 1630 after Ferdinand grew wary of his ambition. Several Protestant victories over Catholic armies induced Ferdinand to recall Wallenstein, who again turned the war in favor of the Imperial cause. Dissatisfied with the Emperor's treatment of him, Wallenstein considered allying with the Protestants. However, Ferdinand had the general assassinated at Eger (Cheb) in Egerland by one of the army's officials, Walter Devereux. Wallenstein's particular genius lay in recognizing a new way for funding war: instead of merely plundering enemies, he called for a new method of systematic â€Å"war taxes†. Even a city or a prince on the side of the Emperor had to pay taxes towards the war. He understood the enormous wastage of resources that resulted from tax exactions on princes and cities of defeated enemies only, and desired to replace this with a â€Å"balanced† system of taxation; wherein both sides bore the cost of a war. He was unable to fully realize this ambition; and in fact his idea led to the random exploitation of whole populations on either side, until finally, almost fifteen years after his death, the war had become so expensive that the warring parties were forced to make peace. In any case, Wallenstein's idea inspired many, among them, Colbert, to â€Å"pluck the goose with a minimum of screeching†. Chapter Review Questions: 1)During the Wars of Religion, politics played an important role in the stances of French leaders. French leaders were persuaded to stand by the religion that would give them the most powerful political stance; they had no interest in the true goals of the religions. Catherine de' Medici, a relative of Pope Clement VII, married the duke of Orleans at age 14; he would become King Henry II of France. But Henry died after about six years of rule, and his successor, Francis II, died the year after that, leaving Catherine as regent for the 10-year-old Charles IX. Catherine let the Jesuits back into France and, seeing the alarming probability that the Reformation might gain a toehold in France, the Jesuits began circulating provocative rumors (1567) of a Huguenot plot to sack and burn Paris. The Huguenot leader, Admiral Coligny, began to exercise more influence over Charles in matters of state than Catherine, so she used the occasion of a political marriage designed to make peace between Protestants and Catholics — the marriage of Henry of Navarre to Marguerite de Valois — to have Coligny assassinated. The plot failed and Coligny was only wounded, but the Huguenot leaders, assembled in Paris in great numbers for the wedding, were infuriated. Charles vowed punishments for the plotters, but with all the important heretics in one place, Catherine saw her final solution to the Huguenot problem: She browbeat the young King into approving a massacre — for reasons of national security. On Sunday, 24 August 1572, at daybreak, French Catholic troops and Catholic citizens drew blood. An eyewitness described the scene: The slaughter in Paris lasted until 17 September, but spread to the provinces, where it continued until 3 October. Admiral Coligny was among the dead. In all of France about 50,000 were slain — more than twice as many people killed over religion in 40 days, as French revolutionaries killed over politics in three years! When news of this holocaust of French Protestants reached the world, Catherine de' Medici received the congratulations of all the Catholic powers, and Pope Gregory XIII ordered bonfires lighted and the singing of the Te Deum. Indeed, the Pope's joy was so great that he commanded a gold medal to be minted, with the inscription, â€Å"Slaughter [strages] of the Huguenots. He then had Giorgio Vasari paint pictures in the Vatican of â€Å"the glorious triumph over a perfidious race. † An ecclesiastical annalist named Strype suggested that the comet of 1572 was a token of Divine wrath provoked by the massacre. But if God was watching, he made no move to turn the events begun on St. Bartholomew's Day, 1572. The realization that a solution was needed was finally realised. 2 )Spain became the dominant power in Europe in the 16th century because of the countless gold and treasure from its New World territories. This era is known by the Spanish as El siglo de oro, â€Å"the golden century†. All this money allowed Spain to purchase and develop the best military technology of the time. However Spain's greatest weakness with all this money was how it ran its very society. Spain had a very feudal society. One's place in it was determined by your birth. Spain's nobilty looked down on any labour as beneath them. Any labour or business was viewed as tasks for commoners. As a result, Spanish nobility was expected to live a life of leisure. When the highest and wealthiest portion of your society doesn't work, all they're doing is spending money, but not generating any new funds. It was only a matter of time before Spain burned through all its wealth. Spain was also exceedingly intolerant towards other religions. Spain's period of wealth and dominance corresponded with the Protestant reformation in Europe. The Spanish king Philp II was a very devout Catholic, who viewed the Reformation as heresy and the work of the Devil. Philp made it the goal of his entire reign to suppress the spread of Protestantism. He was only successful with this goal somewhat. Under Philip's reign Spain became its most powerful, but also started its decline. During his reign the Netherlands revolted against the Spanish Hapsburg crown, Spain experienced costly wars against France and England, and Portugal gained its independence from Spain. Philip II was also successful in that he consolidated Spain's overseas empire, succeeded in massively increasing the importation of silver in the face of English, Dutch and French privateering, and ended the major threat posed to Europe by the Ottoman navy. During his reign, Spain became the greatest naval power in the Mediterranean. 3)A politique is a ruler who focuses more on what is good for their country than on religion. Also, I don't know if Henry of Navarre can be called a politique, because the entire reason he became king came from a power struggle between the Huguenots(french protestants) and french Catholics. The same goes for William of Orange, as he was significant as a result of the revolt in the Netherlands against their Spanish rulers. The Spanish attempted to convert the Netherlands, which were largely Protestant, to Catholicism, which was the established religion in Spain. Elizabeth I, on the other hand, was definitely a politique. Elizabeth took the throne after her sister, Mary I died in 1558. Mary had been a staunch Catholic like her mother, Catherine of Aragon, who originally came from Spain. Mary herself took the throne after their younger brother Edward VI died young due to lifelong poor health. Their father, Henry VIII, had established the Church of England, in order to no longer have to answer to the Pope so that he could divorce Catherine and marry Elizabeth's mother, Anne Boleyn. Mary did not like the Church of England, and so when she took the throne in 1553, she reinstated the Catholic church and had those who refused to convert executed. Elizabeth, by comparison, concentrated more on her foreign relations than on religion, although she did make the Church of England the official religion of England. 4)In 1534 King Henry VIII separated the English Church from Rome. A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English church such as Lollardy, but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII, considering that the earlier marriage had been entered under a papal dispensation and how Catherine's nephew, Emperor Charles V, might react do such a move, refused the annulment. Eventually, Henry, although theologically opposed to Protestantism, took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage. He was excommunicated by Pope Paul III. Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers ere unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry's reign saw the trial for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics. Under his son, Edward VI, more Protestant-influenced forms of worship were adopted. Under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, a more radical reformation proceeded. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles. The confession of the reformed Church of England was set out in the Forty-two Articles (later revised to thirty-nine). The reformation however was cut short by the death of the king. Queen Mary I, who succeeded him, returned England again to the authority of the Pope, thereby ending the first attempt at an independent Church of England. During Mary's reign, many leaders and common people were burnt for their refusal to recant of their reformed faith. These are known as the Marian martyrs and the persecution has led to her nickname of â€Å"Bloody Mary†. Mary also died childless and so it was left to the new regime of her half-sister Elizabeth to resolve the direction of the church. The settlement under Elizabeth I (from 1558), known as the Elizabethan settlement, developed the via media (middle way) character of the Church of England, a church moderately Reformed in doctrine, as expressed in the Thirty-nine Articles, but also emphasising continuity with the Catholic and Apostolic traditions of the Church Fathers. It was also an established church (constitutionally established by the state with the head of state as its supreme governor). The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century. 5)Thirty Years' War , a series of European conflicts from 1618 to 1648, fought primarily in Germany. The war started in Bohemia with a Protestant revolt against the Holy Roman Empire and eventually involved almost all of the countries of Europe. By its final years, religious issues had been submerged and it had become a struggle for power between Austria and Spain on one side and France on the other. Politics determined the outcome of the ar greatly. The Thirty Years' War rearranged the European power structure. The last decade of the conflict saw clear signs of Spain weakening. While Spain was fighting in France, Portugal — which had been under personal union with Spain for 60 years — acclaimed John IV of Braganza as king in 1640, and the House of Braganza became the new dynasty of Portugal (see Portuguese Restoration War, for further information ). Meanwhile, Spain was forced to accept the independence of the Dutch Republic in 1648, ending the Eighty Years' War. Bourbon France challenged Habsburg Spain's supremacy in the Franco-Spanish War (1635-59); gaining definitive ascendancy in the War of Devolution (1667–68), and the Franco-Dutch War (1672–78), under the leadership of Louis XIV. The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in Osnabruck and Munster. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic. The Peace of Westphalia treaties involved the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III, of the House of Habsburg, the Kingdoms of Spain, France, Sweden, the Dutch Republic, the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, and sovereigns of the free imperial cities. The war needed to reach the point of great unrest before it could be resolved with a treaty. 6)It seems â€Å"meaningless† only because the European conflagration lacked a clear point of dispute, not that it lacked any purpose. On the contrary, there were too many points of contention or flash points, far too numerous to even list in a short essay. Once the breaking point was reached on one or some of them, it set off a chain reaction of other open conflicts of long simmering divisions, mostly religious, but those caused by changing balance of powers. This is far from unusual. World War II ended up being a war between two major European alliances for complicated broken treaties and border violations, but was started by a single assassination of an Austro-Hungarian archduke. There was no single principle or cause being fought for in either case. World War II has a simpler narrative, totalitarian states like Germany and Japan attempted to conquer the world, and the good guys resisted and beat them back, but even that belies a deeper complexity in the reasons and chain of events that led to it. The Thirty Years War was fought not for any simple cause, but for too many different reasons, so that for the modern generations, it seems altogether too obscure and frivolous. Nothing could be further from the truth. It was in fact a major realignment of European powers in the aftermath of the battles of the Reformation movement as well as the decline of Spanish Power and the eventual breakup of the Germanic Holy Roman Empire. In fact, the consequences of this breakup has historically lead to both World War I and World War II. In order to fully understand the causes of those major world wars, a thorough understanding of the Thirty Years War is a must.